Innovations in Medical Technology

PHOTOS: FLEXIBLE CATHETER: In 1752, Benjamin Franklin invented the flexible catheter, made of hinged metal segments, for his brother John, who had bladder stones. Previously, catheters had been hard tubes. (PHOTOGRAPH BY LIBRARY OF CONGRESS/ASSOCIATED PRESS); HUMAN GENOME: The first draft of the human genome was announced in 2000. It was declared complete three years later. (PHOTOGRAPH BY RON EDMONDS/ASSOCIATED PRESS); X-RAY: In 1895, Wilhelm Conrad R�ntgen, a German physicist, discovered the X-ray, an invention so remarkable that many did not believe the first reports of its use. The New York Times referred to it mockingly as Dr. R�ntgen's ''alleged discovery of how to photograph the invisible.'' (D3); ELECTROCARDIOGRAM: In 1903, Dr. Willem Einthoven of the Netherlands invented the first practical electrocardiogram. The original weighed 600 pounds, had a water cooling system for its gigantic electromagnets and needed five operators. In 1924 he won the Nobel Prize. (PHOTOGRAPHS BY GETTY IMAGES); DIALYSIS: Dr. Willem J. Kolff, a Dutch physician, built the first dialysis machine, working with tin cans and washing machine parts during the Nazi occupation of the Netherlands in 1943. (PHOTOGRAPH BY RALPH MORSE-TIME LIFE PICTURES/GETTY IMAGES); FETAL ULTRASOUND: In 1958, Dr. Edward Hon of Yale reported using a Doppler monitor on a woman's abdomen to detect fetal heartbeat. Ultrasound's principles had been known for more than a century (Christian Andreas Doppler gave his name to it in 1842), but this was its first use in prenatal care. (PHOTOGRAPH BY TODD HEISLER/THE NEW YORK TIMES) (D4); MAGNIFYING GLASS: In 1250, Roger Bacon constructed the first magnifying glass. The magnifying power of chips of crystal had been known for centuries, but this was the first convex lens designed for scientific purposes. By about 1280, similar lenses would be used to correct farsightedness; now, they are crucial in surgery. (PHOTOGRAPH BY REZA ESTAKHRIAN/GETTY IMAGES); M.R.I. IMAGING: The first M.R.I. images of humans were produced in 1978 using a machine designed by Dr. Raymond V. Damadian. In 2003, two other researchers win a Nobel Prize for further discoveries. (PHOTOGRAPH BY SAMI SARKIS/GETTY IMAGES); COCHLEAR PROSTHESIS: In 1953, Dr. Andr� Djourno of France developed a cochlear prosthesis, a method of stimulating the cochlear nerve in deaf people. It was the beginning of the long road to the development of effective cochlear implants. (D5); INTRAOCULAR LENS: In 1950, Dr. Harold Ridley, a British ophthalmologist, implanted the first permanently placed intraocular lens to correct cataract. (PHOTOGRAPHS BY GETTY IMAGES); HEART TRANSPLANT: In 1967, Dr. Christiaan Barnard, left, a South African, performed the first human heart transplant. The patient, a 53- year-old man, died 18 days later. (PHOTOGRAPH BY ASSOCIATED PRESS); LOBOTOMY: In 1935, Ant�nio Egas Moniz, a Portuguese neurologist but not a trained surgeon, performed the first lobotomy, the removal of the prefrontal lobes of the brain's cortex to treat delusional or violent patients. The operation would soon be found useless and destructive and is no longer practiced. (PHOTOGRAPH BY BETTMANN/CORBIS) (D6); ARTIFICIAL LIVER: In 2006, Dr. Colin McGucklin and Dr. Nico Forraz of Newcastle University developed a liver grown from stem cells. The size of a small coin, it is not an organ that can be implanted in a human. (PHOTOGRAPH BY PETER THOMPSON FOR THE NEW YORK TIMES); STETHOSCOPE: In 1816, Ren� La�nnec, a French physician, invented the stethoscope, a trumpet-shaped wooden tube, to examine a very fat woman whose heart he could not hear by pressing his ear to her chest.; SYNTHETIC BLOOD: The first synthetic blood, Fluosol-DA, was approved for human use in 1989. It was withdrawn from the market in 1994.

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